Journeys End presents ideas about heroism Essay Example

Journeys End presents ideas about heroism Paper Explore the ways in which â€Å"Journey’s End† presents ideas about heroism. Compare and contrast this with the presentation of heroism in â€Å"Blackadder Goes Forth† and evaluate the view that â€Å"Journey’s End† celebrates heroism, whereas â€Å"Blackadder Goes Forth† does not. â€Å"Journey’s End† is a complex play laced with ideas about heroism. As it was written by a war veteran, the messages involved should be credible and insightful. â€Å"Journey’s End† does seem to celebrate heroism as it is a very dominant theme within the play, and it is shown in both various ways. In contrast, â€Å"Blackadder Goes Forth† doesn’t exactly look on heroism as a good aspect of the war (or something to celebrate), but more of a necessity. However, both dramas do show opposing views, from Hibbert’s initial cowardice to Stanhope’s obligated bravery and from George’s naive enthusiasm to Blackadder’s desperation to escape: it could easily be argued that the writers were trying to present views that both celebrate heroism and do not. â€Å"Journey’s End† incorporates heroism very thoroughly to give the audience an understanding of the circumstances the soldiers had to face. Hibbert is a perfect example, as he is an officer that is reluctant to stay in the trenches any longer – so fakes his neuralgia in an attempt to leave. His anxiety breaks through to the surface, as he argues with Stanhope: â€Å"I swear I’ll never go into those trenches again†. Yet Stanhope’s mantra is â€Å"just go on sticking it out†, and he manages to persuade Hibbert with very patriotic speech, telling him to â€Å"take the chance, old chap†. Stanhope is the voice of reason here and speaks almost as Hibbert’s conscience. Hibbert is required to be brave despite being incredibly fearful and flighty. We will write a custom essay sample on Journeys End presents ideas about heroism specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Journeys End presents ideas about heroism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Journeys End presents ideas about heroism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Fear is relentless within each of the characters, but its concealment is what differs. Although in â€Å"Blackadder Goes Forth†, George is at the other extreme with his boyish over-enthusiasm, due to his naivety and upper-class background. This inadvertently makes him a hero, at least in the eyes of someone like General Melchett, for being so eager and committed. Yet in â€Å"Goodbyeee†, George’s character is developed as he admits his fear of death – which suggests he’s been aware of the dangers for quite some time and perhaps just feels inclined to fight â€Å"for king and country†. This isn’t unheroic by any means, but somewhat tragic, and it’s quite essential for George’s inner thoughts and feelings to be presented – as it’s a total contrast from how he seems. Before he reveals his fear of death to the others, Melchett offers to let him come back to HQ and can â€Å"guarantee a seat in the car†, but George’s blind-faith in the war propaganda is so strong that he declines, as he wouldn’t want â€Å"to miss this show for anything† an over-exaggerated conversation structured by Curtis and Elton to highlight the ridiculousness of the circumstances of the war. â€Å"Blackadder Goes Forth† has been criticised by Michael Gove, as he says it reflects â€Å"an unhappy compulsion on the part of some to denigrate virtues such as patriotism, honour and courage†. I disagree, though it is important to remember they are short comedy episodes that carry truthful representations of the war in a satirical light. I do believe the show criticises the glorification of honour and patriotism (within propaganda, for example), but it doesn’t mock the heroes themselves. Courage is subtle within the drama, and it definitely isn’t a characteristic that is belittled. In the final episode as Baldrick offers his â€Å"cunning plan†, Blackadder says â€Å"Well, Im afraid itll have to wait†, which seems to be in the knowledge that they won’t return. This is the ultimate bravery as they go over the top and collectively face death. Stanhope has to carry the burden of the image of heroism, as he’s struggling with alcoholism. He is both a hardened and troubled officer who entered the war with the intention of being heroic, yet turned to alcohol as a coping mechanism. Stanhope carries this burden until his death. He has a tough outer-shell despite breaking down inside, and both this exterior mirage and his inner conflicts are exposed to the audience, which allows them to see the reality of life in the trenches. Despite his issues, he remains loyal to his duty. When Raleigh questions Stanhope drinking after Osborne’s death, Stanhope displays another war-earned trait by losing his temper and asking him if he thinks â€Å"there’s no limit to what a man can bear? †. This question reflects Stanhope’s personal issues and elaborates his drinking problem. It could also mirror Sherriff’s experience, and writing through Stanhope and the other conflicted characters provides a release – through revisiting the war, almost. Heroism seems to be Stanhope’s anchor in the middle of chaos, but through this image he’s able to manipulate anyone under his command. This is similar to the authority he had in school (punishing younger boys for drinking, ironically enough) of which Raleigh remembers and so idolises him all his life. Raleigh is the opposite of Stanhope in terms of experience, and is fresh with innocence. He ‘earns’ his hero status through his constant urge to do his duty, which much like Stanhope and his facade of heroism, carries to his death. The naive and inexperienced boy watches a friend die in front of him, and he also dies in a very noble way. He insists â€Å"I’m certain I’ll be better if if I get up†, showing patriotism in a sick and sad sense, which seems specifically written to demonstrate his youthful heroism. Although mortally wounded, Raleigh’s fighting spirit is undiminished. Stanhope’s honesty within his confession to Osborne gives further depth to his character, especially when he says: â€Å"D’you ever get a sudden feeling that everything’s going farther and farther away – till you’re the only thing in the world – and then the world begins going away – until you’re the only thing in – in the universe – and you struggle to get back – and can’t? †. This unmasks Stanhope’s isolated psyche and how adrift he feels, proving that he faces many torments, armed with a great deal of courage. I believe that Sherriff wrote this confession scene to unearth deeper dilemmas that Stanhope had in order to shock the audience and get them to sympathise with the universal soldier, and respect them as heroes for not only putting their lives on the line, but their mentality and physicality. Publisher Ralph Hodder-Williams criticised â€Å"Journey’s End† in 1929: â€Å"You have no idea what terrible offence â€Å"Journey’s End† has given — and terrible pain too, which is a great deal more important. I think you will agree that the chronic alcoholic was extraordinarily rare. † this strikes me as being a reflection of the time as this critique was during the prohibition, a time in which alcohol was frowned upon, so Hodder-Williams may have taken a dislike to Stanhope’s behaviour and the way Sherriff presented him. I also think his comment about â€Å"the chronic alcoholic† isn’t accurate, as Robert Gore-Langton asked veteran Captain Amherst about alcohol in the trenches, and he said he â€Å"never drew a sober breath†. The inaccuracy may be due to a lot of people, even in 1929, not recognising the emotional and psychological impact of trench warfare. â€Å"Terrible pain† is also very extreme, as I think Sherriff was simply trying to expose the escape from the war that some soldiers needed, much like Blackadder in â€Å"Blackadder Goes Forth†. Within the show, the desperation to leave is apparent and is used as a comedic feature but the meaning behind it is more sincere. The dialogue is laced with irony and satire, particularly involving or directed at General Melchett. Melchett’s speech is propaganda based and so obviously immoral, and with the aid of Blackadder’s sarcastic retorts, the audience realise how cowardly the high-ranking officers were which is the total opposite of the obligated bravery of the soldiers. Melchett and Darling are particularly mocked when they reassure Blackadder and Co. that they are â€Å"right behind you†, to which Blackadder responds â€Å"yes, 35 miles behind us†. Although this is humorous, there is a large grain of truth in it. In this sense, heroism isn’t celebrated it’s seen as a necessity. As contemporary writers, Curtis and Elton are writing solely based on history and personal opinion, but successfully convey the idea that in the war it wasn’t a choice to be a hero or not. I also believe that although â€Å"Journey’s End† celebrates heroism, Sherriff writes such individual problems and developed characteristics for each officer so they are recognised by the audience as actual humans and when together they meet their ultimate fate, it all feels futile and very tragic, so much so that the officers can’t not be considered heroes. In conclusion, although â€Å"Blackadder Goes Forth† and â€Å"Journey’s End† are works of a different time, they both carry very important ideas regarding heroism that remain relevant today. Heroism is defined as â€Å"great bravery†, and I believe the characters within these dramas and all those involved in the war truly epitomise what it is to be a hero. (1,476 words)

Study of the Coalition Governments scrapping of the Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA) The WritePass Journal

Study of the Coalition Governments scrapping of the Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA) Abstract Study of the Coalition Governments scrapping of the Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA) AbstractIntroductionDiscussionConclusionsReferencesBibliographyRelated Abstract This paper addressed decision by Coalition government to scrap the Educational Maintenance Allowance (EMA) paid to students who stayed in post- compulsory education. It explored the history of EMA and the circumstances leading to its scrapping. The paper presented discussions emerging from those who are in support of EMA and those who aren’t and the context in which Coalition decided to scrap it. The discussions explored beliefs that decisions taken by Coalition do not take into consideration their impact on students across the country. The paper discussed an academic literature, viewing the conflicting and opposed nature of EMA in post-16 education and, therefore, may be understood better from students’, staff and parents’ perspectives. The decision by the researcher to tackle this current issue was because of concerns about the future of 25 students on Foundation Learning and Springboard who were all EMA recipients on full  £30 a week band. The researcher wanted to find out if the new funding mechanisms replacing EMA were the best to tackle problems of deprivation and disadvantage students faced and how not getting EMA would impact on their learning. Introduction The aim of the paper was to find out if EMA delivered policy requirements of widening participation, increased retention and attendance, encouragement of social mobility, inclusivity, access for all, Every Child Matters and equal opportunities to resources. These policy aspects were examined in detail as they are embedded in the whole realm of EMA. The influence of EMA on crime was discussed in relation to its ability to reduce crime. The paper attempted to seek justification as to why Coalition scrapped EMA and replaced it with different funding mechanisms, eradicating uninformed assumptions as to which funding practices are either appropriate or effective. The paper examined these aspects in relation to their influence on choice of destinations for students. Policies which impact on post-16 education and further education (FE) were discussed to enhance understanding of the initial introduction of EMA policy. Discussion In the United Kingdom, during the 1980s to1990s there was an influx in post-16 education. Many 16, 17 and 18 year olds remained in full time education. By 1994 numbers had doubled. In 1998 four fifths of post-16 children came from families where parents were managers or professionals, compared to less than half of those from poor working class backgrounds. Children from poor working class backgrounds made up ten percent of children not in education, employment or training (NEET). DfES (2004). This became policy issue for Labour in terms of post-16 education being largely enjoyed by children from wealthier backgrounds. This necessitated the formulation of education policies to narrow the gap between poor and rich children. The first policy was the Standardised National Curriculum, (Market Reform) for all learners from the age of 7 to 16. It’s purpose was to make pupils study certain curriculum subjects in detail in order to tackle problems of poor numeracy and literacy to raise standards, widen access and improve basic skills. Many children left school without qualifications, GCSE pass rate was low, more than 2/3 did not pass GCSE and many opted for vocational qualifications. Dearden   et al (2005). This policy was time consuming as teachers planned all the subjects. Parents were given the right to choose schools, impacting on housing and cost of moving for poor parents. League tables made some schools look bad. The quasi-market system made it hard for some schools to improve. It created social- class and educational inequalities. Poor students were left behind, attending poor schools, underachieving in disadvantaged societies. Funding was based on school enrolment. Schools were given autonomy on the type of student to enrol, encouraging social and educational exclusion. Following this policy in 1998, was the National Numeracy and Literacy Strategies (Curriculum Reform). Policy objective was to improve basic skills by using prescriptive methods to help teachers to know what to teach and how to teach it and allowing literacy and numeracy hours on the curriculum. Students were tested on their understanding of curriculum subjects by using national tests at 1, 2, 3, and 4 key stages. The limitations of this policy made it difficult to attract qualified teachers because of poor teachers’ packages, introduction of performance related pay and unfavourable conditions in relation to other professions. There was no autonomy for teachers. Everything was prescribed, removing creativity and initiative in teaching. In spite of efforts by Labour, post-16 participation remained low. Another policy was introduced, the Vocational Qualification Reform which introduced the NVQs and NGVQs for students who were not performing well academically and to raise participation in post-16 education. It was a way of encouraging work- related education and making vocational qualifications look attractive to employers. Dearden et al.(2002) This policy was unsuccessful. The qualifications were not valued by employers who thought only low performing students took vocational courses and therefore paid them low wages. Machin and Vignoles (2006). There was no unification of the system. There were too many different providers offering too many different qualifications with no economic value which Melia (1995) called â€Å"The Further Education Qualification jungle†. This did not encourage poor students to stay on in post-16 education. Following 1991 and 1992 Education White Papers was the Kennedy Report (1997), which recommended that extra funds be made available to Inner City Colleges for students from socio-economically deprived backgrounds and those from poor post code areas, to widen participation. Children who fitted this category were nicknamed the ‘Kennedy Children’. Public view suggested this was done at the expense of children from the ‘right’ postcodes. Researcher can argued that the ‘Kennedy children’, as a matter of policy,     had a right to benefit from extra funding to encourage them to stay on in education and achieve, from exclusion to inclusive education. Green and Lucas (2000). This led to the introduction of EMA policy.   EMA policy was designed to address financial constraints which formed a barrier to post-16 participation in FE particularly among learners from low socio-economic backgrounds. Policy objectives were designed to improve student reten tion and attendance rates in sixth form and post-16 education, to raise participation and attainment levels in further education. Labour launched the pilot project in September 1998-1999 in 56 out of 150 Local Authority Areas (LEAs). It targeted students in areas with low post-16 participation, low retention, low achievement rates, in areas where there was deprivation, where most of the population lived in rented accommodation and did not participate in the job market because of low qualifications and lack of skills. Heaver et al (2002). After the first pilot proved a success the second pilot was launched in 2002-2004. Machin and Vignoles (2004) in agreement with the Kennedy Report reviewed a policy reform which introduce EMA to help students from poor backgrounds whose parents earned less than  £30,000 a year if they remained in education beyond compulsory education. EMA policy was administered first through the Learning Skills Council (LSC) but was moved to Young People’s Learning Agency (YPLA). YPLA aims are raising aspirations, improving attainment targets to Level 2/3, reducing the NEET cohort and delivering Every Child Matters outcomes for young people. Eysenck (December 2010) affirmed â€Å"EMA makes it possible for students from poorer backgrounds to go onto sixth form or college rather than forcing them to leave school to take low paid, dead end jobs†. It was officially launched nationwide in 2006 after being regarded a success in encouraging young people to stay on in education and opening up chances for students from disadvantaged back grounds who were unlikely to stay on in education after the compulsory education period. Chancellor Gordon Brown announced â€Å"The four pilots of EMA had proved a success, helping 20,000 extra students a year to stay in education†. Slatter (July 2003:2). By putting this policy in place Labour recognised   Every Child Matters outcomes on inclusive education, raising aspirations, access and equality of opportunities for students with special or additional learning needs. Miles (2010). The Kennedy report pointed the need for these groups to be adequately educated to prevent social and economic exclusion.   The recent proposed scrapping of EMA contradicts the Kennedy Report EMA was means-tested. Students received varying amounts depending on their family yearly income. Some students received  £10,  £20, others received the full  £30 allowance a week. In addition, each student received various bonuses for attendance and achievement at the end of the course. Table1 shows how the students were paid according to individual household income.   In 2004 about 50% of 16-19 year olds qualified to be eligible for EMA. Table 1 Up to  £20,817  £30.00 a week  £20,818- £25,521  £20 a week.  £25,522- £30,810  £10 a week  £30,810+ Nothing Source: Dearden et al (2005) Social welfare benefits, child credits received by parents and earnings gained through part time jobs taken by young people were not considered. The money was paid into students’ accounts to help with the purchase of educational materials, bus fares and lunch but students could spend it as they wishe Coalition decided to scrap EMA. In support, Nash (2002) announced that EMA had not been successful in encouraging participation of poor children. New applicants were not accepted after January 2011. Grounds for scrapping EMA given by Coalition are, it has not been properly targeted when Labour introduced it, Labour covered every young person with the same blanket and made them eligible. They claimed that learners were abusing it by spending it on alcohol, luxury goods, cigarettes and not using it to buy educational materials. Coalition goes further to say EMAs were costing the taxpayer  £564 million a year and there was no evidence on attainment of qualifications by those staying on at school.   Not achieving qualifications and receiving EMA was like their parents signing on to get benefits.   Lee (January 2011). Some researchers say â€Å"they see no reason why these youngsters cannot take part time jobs like newspaper rounds like we did in our days†. Freedman (2008: 2) . Encouraging children to take part time jobs helps them to develop work ethics. According to Michael Gove, EMA did not achieve the initial objective of encouraging young disadvantaged people to stay on in education after the compulsory education period. This was Labour’s way of keeping unemployment figures down as they did not have other options for them. Pearson (February, 2011). Labour argued this by quoting the education spokesman who said â€Å"†¦96% of 16- year olds and 94% of seventeen- year olds   participate in education, employment or training because of the EMA†. Pearson goes further to say children do not need to be bribed to stay in education. What they need are initiatives, excellent teachers and help to remain focussed and find purpose in school. McGivney (December 2005:3) says â€Å"A curriculum that is based on varied interests and wishes of learners is far more effective in attracting learners and sustaining their motivation.† What is needed is to make learning meaningful and enjoyable to prevent dropouts. When Michael Gove was Shadow Schools Secretary for Conservatives he hinted that EMAs were an expensive undertaking causing huge deficits which the country cannot afford. Coalition was accused of being out of touch with the plight of disadvantaged and poor people in this country. The context in which Coalition is scrapping EMA is strengthened by a letter written to The Guardian by a seventeen year old student drawing attention to abuse of EMA by students who owned cars and laptops and receiving EMA while living with their divorced mothers. Jones (2010) Although Labour had planned to scrap EMA in 2013 when their proposed plan to raise school-leaving age to 18 came into place, they are now on the opposition trying to stop scrapping of EMA. Labour ministers lost the parliamentary vote to stop this decision by Coalition and Andy Burnham expressed concern that the decision will force children out of full time education, he predicated a raise in crime and said it will influence students’ decision making. Liard (2010). A survey conducted by Buie (2007) found no evidence of the impact of EMA except that it encouraged the benefit culture as most of recipients’ parents were on social benefits and their children might see it as the norm but Jaquette (2009) showed achievement rose by 10% with large numbers from disadvantaged communities. During this survey, students who were interviewed complained that some students just came to make up their hours and get paid and they were distracting lessons and stopping others from learning. In addressing the issue of students not in education, employment or training, (NEET) Buie (2007:3) said â€Å"they have become disengaged and disaffected well before the age of 16, and EMA has little impact on them†. This is why some researchers have suggested EMA should only be paid on achievement rather than waste it on young people who do not take interest in educational achievements. However, Coalition is proposing to cut out EMA and raise school leaving age and replace EMA with Pupil-premium Fund in schools and the Discretionary Learner Support Fund in Colleges (DLSF). The learner support fund will cost  £78 million per year in comparison to EMA. Finlay et al (2007b: 233 ) called it â€Å"Flowers in the desert†. This indicates funding is likely to run out before provision is finished and students are not automatically entitled. Answering to questions in parliament, Mr. Hughes, Coalition’s access advocate strengthened their position by announcing that government could not sustain the system to carry on as it is, there is no money. He went on to warn that at EMA’s full value of  £564 million a year to cover 6480,000 students, the scheme is unsustainable. J. Lee (January 2011). Rogers (December 2010:2) in support of the DLSF reiterates that â€Å"ensuring the most disadvantaged pupils get the support they need has to be our priority†. This fund is paid directly to FE colleges. Principals and Managers of these institutions will use their discretion to decide how this money will be used in line with the 1992 Education Act which urged Principals and Managers of FE colleges to provide students in their colleges with financial or other help of any nature as they consider fit. This gives autonomy to colleges and the money will be properly targeted. The public argument against scrapping of EMA is partly based on the UN Convention on the Rights of the Children and the ten year strategy for children and young people (UNCRC) for 2008-2011. The convention mentions the importance of developing a culture which considers matters that impact on children and young people and review them routinely. Bearing in mind the requirements of the convention, the 2009 Youth Conference agreed EMA will be made available to all post -16 students without considering parents’ earnings. In view of what is going on currently, Coalition would dispute the later part of this statement because it is not targeted specifically towards poor students. Labour opposed scrapping of EMA from the point of view that without funding, policy on inclusive education is rendered ineffective and support for learners with special educational and additional needs will drop, compromising their job prospects, adding numbers to the benefit bill and social mobility will be affected as students cannot move out of the grips of poverty. Mittler (2005) defines policy on inclusion as affording each person the help they need to achieve. Scrapping their EMA will open the poverty gap between the rich and poor, causing educational inequalities, as many will not be able to stay on in education. Colleges and other FE institutions delivered inclusive education because the EMA afforded students to attend but without it, it will be hard to bring students back from the NEET. EMA was the attraction, encouraging access and equality of opportunities. Laird (2010) EMA confirmed that in the past six years post-16 participation has improved by 30 percent and she links this back to the fact that EMA was introduced, and encouraged children to stay on.   Labour also goes on to say the cost of EMA will be outweighed by the higher wages the students will earn in the long run when they are qualified and benefits payments will be reduced. Organisations campaigning against scrapping of EMA, (Save EMA and Unison) considered taking legal action against the Coalition for failing to recognise an earlier statement which stated that learners who had started new programmes in 2010 will continue to receive the EMA until 2013. Coalition has now said all EMA funding will stop at the end of the 2010 academic year. Crime data published by the Home Office Offenders Index showed that during the pilot period EMA had a positive impact on reducing crime. Table 4 shows a reduction of crime in all areas where the young people received EMA. Violent crimes remained high. This may be due to the different types of crimes constituting â€Å"violent crime.† Table 4 showing crime reduction in pre- and post- EMA periods LEAs Pre- EMA Post-EMA Areas with EMA Violent  Ã‚   1,645Burglary   4, 219 Theft   7, 643 1,4682,230 4,817 Areas without EMA Violent   1,137Burglary 2,227 Theft 7,643 0, 9771,176 4,817 Source:     Hirschfield   (2004) The areas chosen were known to have high crime rates and the main perpetrators were young men. The differences in crime rate between EMA and Non-EMA areas could mean the likelihood of other crime reducing strategies working alongside EMA but the evidence is there that EMA helps to reduce   theft and burglary crimes by providing ready cash for young people and they do not have to get it by illegal means. From teachers’ perspective, EMA has helped to develop parents’ interest in the education of their children. They were involved at the initial application of EMA and phoned the institution if there was a problem with the student’s payments and the teachers used this opportunity to discuss other issues pertaining to the education of the particular student. One parent admitted â€Å"On occasions the threat of loosing his EMA got him out of bed† Jones R (2010:2).   FE teachers see the removal of EMA as a real challenge for them to get students motivated to attend. This confirms Labour’s argument that EMA has improved attendance and participation. Student A. who has made it to CambridgeUniversity said he would not have made it if it wasn’t for EMA. The Guardian (April 2010). In contrast, Coalition, in 2010 recorded students’ reactions to a question which asked them what effect scrapping of EMA would have on their education and choice of destinations. Students responded in the following manner: 45% said none. 42% said they would have stayed in education but would have needed to take a part time job. 7% said they would have gone into work-based learning. 6% said they would not have stayed on at all. The evidence is shown here that 90% young people would have stayed on with or without EMA. Bolton (2011) Poorer students have been cut off from the social arena and their window of opportunity has been closed. This is breaching ‘Every Child Matters’ policy   aspect on   Ã¢â‚¬Å"making positive contribution, enjoying and achieving economic wellbeing†. It is extremely difficult to meet these objectives under the current situation. The Child Act (2006) stated that providers incorporate â€Å"Every Child Matters† frame work and that it is Ofsted inspected but in any political climate according to Ball (1997:105),) â€Å"policies shift and change their meaning in the arenas of politics† and they are understood and used differently by different actors with different interests. Steer et al (2007 This researcher has seen how EMA helped young Asian women, who would otherwise be married off by their fathers the moment they finished compulsory education. EMA has helped them avoid becoming victims of their culture. Parents arranged forced marriages if girls were not engaged in education. Mirza (2009) described it as being persuaded into a marriage against ones will in the name of family honour. During class discussion on scrapping of EMA the girls told the researcher this decision by Coalition had hit them hardest. They said staying on in education was the only way of delaying forced marriages. The diverse nature and cultural backgrounds of students need to be considered when making decisions so that certain groups of the population do not feel excluded and victimised by the system. This is in accordance with the UN Convention 2010-2011. Another EMA recipient, student B who is studying sciences to qualify to study medicine said â€Å"I will have to take a part time job as my parents cannot afford transport and lunch money for me but I know that I shall have less study time and it will have an impact on my results†. Recipient C said she lived on her own and uses some of her EMA to pay bills and transport and if she does not get it she will have to stop studying for her Level 2 English and Mathematics. Student C said he was from a working class background and although he only received  £10 a week it went a long way to help him complete his studies. This shows how students have been affected by scrapping of EMA in their individual situations and how it might alter their destinations. Coalition has effectively altered provision and opportunities available to students. Bolton (January 2010) Coalition is considering a 14-19 funding system and extending the pupil-premium fund to FE colleges. The extra money could be used to hire more staff or improve facilities which will benefit more people than paying EMA to a few individuals. Government will pay more money to colleges who enrol more students from poor backgrounds. A research by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation found that post-16 study is a follow up of good GCSE’s.  Ã‚   It is, therefore, meaningful to stop EMA and spend money on improving pupils’ grades at this level. The impact of scrapping EMA in the researcher’s organisation influenced behaviour management and pedagogy. On starting a course students sign an EMA contract which binds them to rules on attendance, time keeping, acceptable behaviour and achievement. The researcher used this contract as a tool to encourage positive behaviour and students’ EMA payment would be stopped if parts of the contract were breached. When the announcement to scrap EMA was made, the researcher felt disarmed and discouraged. EMA was used to motivate and discipline students. Students who enrolled after January 2010 often missed sessions complaining they had no bus money and borrowed money to buy lunch from staff members. Some students left before completing their courses to get jobs. Enrolment numbers dropped.   Several students openly said â€Å"I only came to collect my money. If I don’t get paid I don’t come†. These students disrupted lessons and abusing the EMA. Decreasing student numbers caused financial deficits which resulted in staff redundancies.   The manager controlled purchasing of stationary. Her decisions   adversely affected teaching due to lack of resources. Students who completed Level 2 English and Maths did not apply to colleges due to uncertainty about EMA. This impacted on the organisation’s finances as they could not make claims on progression. On the other hand, there were some good outcomes. Some students said they will have to stop smoking, drinking, cut down on mobile phone calls and nights out because they could not afford them anymore. In the researchers’ professional practice, scrapping of EMA brought the realisation that the job was more pastoral care than teaching, there was need for a sympathetic approach and more understanding when addressing students’ problems. The researcher learnt new behaviour management techniques which promoted conformity and encouraged achievement.   Using EMA to control behaviours was punitive and unethical. The method did not foster good student –teacher relationships. Methods of planning and presenting lessons changed to captivate interest and enthusiasm to cater for students who were at risk of dropping out. The generic lesson plans produced by the company were not student-centred. The researcher became more pro-active and innovative in sourcing out learning aids as there was no money to purchase them from shops. Regionally, institutions of FE offered staff voluntary redundancies as they fore saw reduced numbers of students enrolling on courses after the scrapping of EMA. There seemed to be more young people on the streets during week days which could be indicative of children going back to NEET. There were radical changes in contracts at the local college to embrace the changes. Learners complained they have not been listened to. Many students took poorly paid part-time jobs to fund transport to college and pay for educational materials. One office which referred students from NEET to institutions of FE closed their High Street office and moved into a small place and some staff made redundant. A local Youth Centre run by the NHS has reported a rise in numbers of young people frequenting the place to play games and watch television during week days. Conclusions At the beginning of this paper seven key issues were identified and have been used to analyse the impact of the scrapping of EMA on post16 students and their choice of destinations. EMA influenced students’ decisions to stay in education after the age of 16 and fulfilled it’s policy objectives on widening participation of students from poor backgrounds, inclusion and social mobility.   The NEET cohort was reduced because students were rewarded financially for turning up, making their study look like work. EMA had a positive effect on students’ decision making and choices of destinations, encouraging equal access to opportunities. In terms of crime reduction, EMA played an important role alongside other crime reduction mechanisms. EMA encouraged parental support and dialogue with staff. Children perform better when they feel supported by family. Every child in this country deserves to benefit from a healthy economic environment which embraces those born into poverty according to Children’s Act 2004 and Youth Matters. Every citizen aspires to benefit from a society with strong educational achievements, skilled people and reduced crime rates. Our government shoulders the responsibility to ensure every child achieves their full potential by putting in place economic policies which do not create stumbling blocks for young people but point them towards the right direction and provide the necessary help for them to complete their learner journeys.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   No of words: 4,359 References Ball, J S., (1997)   Education Reform. Open University Press. Buckingham Bolton, P., (January 2011), Education Maintenance Allowance Statistics. House of Commons Library. Date accessed: 08.02.11  Ã‚   Date last updated: 13 January 2011 Buie, E., (3 August 2007), Impact of allowance in doubt. Times Educational Supplement. Connect.  Ã‚   Available at: tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=2416714   Date accessed: 25/01/2011 DfSE (200), The Learning and Skills Council: Strategies Priorities.London DfEE Dearden, L., MacIntosh, S., Myck, M., and Vignoles, A., (2002), The Returns to Academic and Vocational Qualifications in Britain. Bulletin of Economic Research, 54, 249-274 Dearden, L.,Emmerson, C., Frayne, C., and Meghir, C., (2005), Education Subsidies and School Drop-Out Rates, forthcoming   Centre for Economics of Education Discussion Paper. Eysenck, J.,(December 2010),   Poor young people will loose out as EMA is scrapped, councillors warn. The Westminster Chronicle.  Ã‚   Available at: http://westminster.londoninformer.co.uk/2010/12/poorer-young-people-will-lose.html Access date: 08/02/2011 Finlay, I., Hodgson, A., and Steer, R., (2007b), Flowers in the desert: The impact of policy on basic skills provision in the work place. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 59(2), 231-247 Freedman, S., (21 November 2008), There is a better way than EMA. Times Educational Supplement Connect. FE Focus.   Available at: tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=6005454   Access date: 25/01/2011 Green, A., and Lucas, N., (2000), Further Education and Life Long learning: Realigning the Sector for the Twenty First Century. Book Production Consultants pk.   Cambridge. Heaver, C., Maguire, M., Middleton, S., Maguire, S., Young, R., Dobson, B., and Hardman, J., (2002), Evaluation of Education Maintenance Allowance Pilots, Leeds and London. First Year Evidence, RR353 London: DfES Hirschfield, A., (2004), Impact of Reducing Initiative, Home Office Online, Report 40/04.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Available at: crimereduction.gov.uk/burglary74.htm Access date: 25/01/201 Home Office (2004), Reducing Burglary Initiative, Note on Internet, Available at:     crimereduction.gov.uk/bri.htm Access date: 25/01/2011 Jaquette, O., (February 2009), Funding for Equality and Success in English Further Education.   Oxford Review of Education, Vol.35, No1, pp57-79, Routeledge, University of Michgan, USA. Jones, R., (6 April 2010), Are rich kids getting education maintenance allowance cash? The Guardian.co.uk  Ã‚  Ã‚   Available at: guardian.co.uk/education/2010/apr/06/ema-educational-allowance-abused†¦ Date accessed: 14/02/2011 Laird, G., (29 October 2010), Scrapping of EMA will slash poorer student numbers, say principals. Times Educational Supplement Connect. FE Focus. Available at:  Ã‚   tes.co.uk/article.asp?storycode=382200 Date accessed: 21/01/2011 Lee, J., (14 January 2011), Coalition divided over abolition of EMA. Times Educational Supplement Connect.   FE   Focus.   Available at: tes.c.uk/article.aspx?storycode=6067568   Date accessed: 08/02/2011 Machin, S., and Vignoles, S., (2004), Educational Inequality: The Widening Socio- Economic Gap, Fiscal Studies, 25, 107- 28. Machin, S., and Vignoles., (March 2006), Education Policy in the UK. Centre for Economics of Education. LondonSchool of Economics. London McGivney,V.,   (December 2005) Death by a thousand cuts. Adults Learning. Vol.17, Issue 4, P8-11, 4p,   Available at: http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?hid=13sid=744f015e-b11e-418f-bbf0-545f6e   Access date: 27/01/2011 Melia, T.P., (March 1995), Quality and it’s Assurance in Further Education. Vol. 25,   Cambridge Journal of Education. Issue 1, p35, 10p 2Graphs. Available at: http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?hid=13sid=744f015e-b11e-418f-bbf0-545f6e†¦Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Access date:   27/01/2011 Miles, S., and Nidhi,S., ( February 2010), The Education for all and Inclusive Education Debate: Conflict, Contradiction or Opportunity. International Journal of Inclusive Education.Vol.14, Issue1, p1-15,15p Mittler, P., (2005), Working towards Inclusive Education.Routeledge, New York Mirza, S.H., (2009), Race Gender and Educational Desire. Routeledge. London Nash, I., (6/28/2002), Grants fail to draw in excluded. Times Educational Supplement. Issue 4487, p33,1/3p     Available at:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?hid=106sid=d9ebea77-95c6-46c5-9c3e-bb67 Access date: 25/01/2011 Pearson, A., (21 January 2011), If teenagers need cash they should get a Saturday job. The Telegraph.   Available at: telegraph.co.uk/comment/columnist/allison-pearson/8273943/If-teenager  Ã‚   Access date: 25/02/2011 Rogers, D., (10 December 2010), EMA fury gains pace amid fears of student drop-out. Times Educational Supplement. Connect, FE Focus.   Available at: tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=6065676 Access date: 25/01/2011 Steer, R., Hodgson, K., Finlay, A., Coffield,F., Edward, S., and Gregson, M.,(2007) Modernisation and the role of policy levers in the learning and skills sector. Journal of Vocational Education and Training. 59(2), 175-192. Slatter, J., (12 March 2004), Millions spent to give students  £30. Times Educational Supplement. Issue 4612, p16-16,1/4p,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Available at: http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?hid=108sid=35d25c6d-6326-4c41-8ee2-7676  Ã‚  Ã‚     Access date: 08 Bibliography Blanchflower, D., (20 January 2011) Scrapping the EMA and cutting the young adrift. The Guardian. Available at:   http://m.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/jan/20/ema-deadweight-youth-unemployment Access date: 31/01/2011 Cantor, L.,   Robertson, L., and Prately, B., (1995), A Guide to Further Education in England and Wales. Cassell   London Homfray, T., (3/19/2004), What do they mean? Education maintenance allowance. Times Educational Supplement. Issue 4575, p31-31, 1/6p Available at:   http://web.ebscohost.comehost/detail?hid=108sid=35d25c6d-6326-4c41-8ee2-7676   Ã‚  Ã‚  Date accessed: 08/02/2011 Linford, N., (2009), The hands-on Guide to Post-16 funding. Edexcel   Limited. London MacDonald, J., and Lucas, N., (2001), The Impact of FEFC Funding 1997-99: Research on 14 Colleges. Vol.25, No.2, Institute of EducationUniversity of London. Londo Middleton,S., Perren,K., Mguire, S., and Rennison, J., (2005), Evaluation of Education Maintenance Pilots: Young People Aged 16 to 19 Years Final Report of the Quantitative Evaluation. Research Report No 678 Queen’s Printer and Controller of HMSO 2005 Merril, B., and Hyland, T., (2004),   The Changing Face of Further Education. RouteledgeFalmer. Lon Ngaio, C., (7/12/2002), MPs seek seamless student support. Times Educational Supplement, Issue 4489, p29, 1/9p Available at: http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?hid=106sid=d9ebea77-95c6-46c5-9c3e-bb67  Ã‚   Date accessed:   25/01/2011 Pring, R., (2001),   Philosophy of an Educational Research. Continuum, London Rogers, D., and Ross, A., (17 December, 2010),   Student demo shines a light on â€Å"Cinderella† cash. Times Educational Supplement. FE Focus.   Available at:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=6066205 Access date:   25/01/2011 Thomson, A., (23 October 2009) Bodies battle it out over maintenance grant value. Times Educational Supplement. Connect. FE Focus. Available at:   tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=6025776 Access date: 25/01/2011 Trowler, P.,   (2003),   Education Policy 2nd ed   Routeledge. New york.

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Emergency Communications - Essay Example olds at a cheaper price, but at the same time makes it hard for other video signals to pass through the same channel to other TV sets in the same region. Considering the US Federal Communication Commission analog standard, one program is delivered in a 6 MHz band (Fotheringham and Sharma, 2008). Using digital formats, the same frequency space can deliver about five to ten pictures similar in clarity, or at least two programs in high definition. Additionally, a single 6 MHz broadcast TV spectrum channel can also supply broadcast services (Fotheringham and Sharma, 2008). However, the broadcast service is eliminated by the FCC digital TV standard, which states that TV stations must deliver high definition videos across the whole 6 MHz band allocation in order to retain their licenses (Fotheringham and Sharma, 2008). The result is underutilization of techniques that save spectrum span and emission of too much power by TV broadcasters. The broadcast TV represents the traditional spectrum management, which suggests that governments must have a control over the usage of frequency to limit and prevent harmful interferences. Thus, the government resolves to the administrative allocation or the state property management of the frequency. The increasing number of interconnections to other systems and the evolution of technologies utilized contribute to the significant changes taking place in the electric utilities operation and design of automation and control systems. These changes present some very challenging aspects in the utilities, including interoperability and cyber security. Nonetheless, interoperability has the highest priority between the two challenges. Operability is a key requirement in assisting vendors and utilities to solve the cyber security challenge. Interoperability has been present in arguments concerning the smart grid, but absent in the cyber security section. Interoperability is possible with almost all cyber security solutions, but only in

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Microbial Production Of Industrial Enzymes Biology Essay Enzymes are biocatalysts produced by living cells to bring about specific biochemical reactions generally forming parts of the metabolic processes of the cells. Enzymes are highly specific in their action on substrates and often many different enzymes are required to bring about, by concerted action, the sequence of metabolic reactions performed by the living cell. All enzymes which have been purified are protein in nature, and may or may not possess a nonprotein prosthetic group. The practical application and industrial use of enzymes to accomplish certain reactions apart from the cell dates back many centuries and was practiced long before the nature or function of enzymes was understood. Use of barley malt for starch conversion inbrewing, and of dung for bating of hides in leather making, are examples of ancient use of enzymes. It was not until nearly the turn of this century that the causative agents or enzymes responsible for bringing about such biochemical reactions became known. Then crude preparations from certain animal tissues such as pancreas and stomach mucosa, or from plant tissues such as malt and papaya fruit, were prepared which found technical applications in the textile, leather,brewing, and other industries. HISTORY:- Dr. Jokichi Takamine (1894, 1914) was the first person to realize the technical possibility of cultivated enzymes and to introduce them to industry. He was mainly concerned with fungal enzymes, whereas Boidin and Effront (1917) in France pioneered in the production of bacterial enzymes about 20 years later.Technological progress in this field during the last decades has been so great that, for many uses, micro-bial cultivated enzymes have replaced the animal or plant enzymes. Once the favorable results of employing such enzyme preparations were established, a search began for better, less expensive, and more readily available sources of such enzymes.It was found that certain microorganisms produce enzymes similar in action to the amylases of malt and pancreas, or to the proteases of the pancreas and papaya fruit. This led to the development of processes for producing such microbial enzymes on a commercial scale Example, in textile desizing, bacterial amylase has largely replaced malt or pancreatin. At present, only a relatively small number of microbial enzymes have found commercial application, but the number is increasing, and the field will undoubtedly be much expanded in the future. Enzyme classification:-Presently more than 3000 different enzymes have been isolated and classified. The enzymes are classified into six major categories based on the nature of the chemical reaction they catalyze: 1. Oxidoreductases :- Catalyze oxidation or reduction of their substrates. 2. Transferases :- Catalyze group transfer. 3. Hydrolases :- Catalyze bond breakage with the addition of water. 4. Lyases :- Remove groups from their substrates. 5. Isomerases :- Catalyze intramolecular rearrangements. 6. Ligases :- Catalyze the joining of two molecules at the expense of chemical energy. Only a limited number of all the known enzymes are commercially available . More than 75 % of industrial enzymes are hydrolases. Protein-degrading enzymes constitute about 40 % of all enzyme sales. More than fifty commercial industrial enzymes are available and their number is increasing steadily PRODUCTION OF MICROBIAL ENZYMES Enzymes occur in every living cell, hence in all microorganisms. Each single strain of organism produces a large number of enzymes, hydrolyzing, oxidizing or reducing, and metabolic in nature. But the absolute and relative amounts of the various individual enzymes produced vary markedly between species and even between strains of the same species. Hence, it is customary to select strains for the commercial production of specific enzymes which have the capacity for producing highest amounts of the particular enzymes desired. Commercial enzymes are produced from strains of molds, bacteria, and yeasts Up until less than 10 years ago, commercial fungal and bacterial enzymes were produced by surface culture methods. Within the past few years, however, submerged culture methods have come into extensive use. For fungal enzymes, the mold is cultivated on the surface of a solid substrate. Takamine used wheat bran and this has come to be recognized as the most satisfactory basic substrate although other fibrous materials can be employed. Other ingredients may be added, such as nutrient salts, acid or buffer to regulate the pH, soy bean meal or beet cosettes to stimulate enzyme production. In one modification of the bran process, the bran is steamed for sterilization, cooled, inoculated with the mold spores and are then spreaded .Incubation takes place in chambers where the temperature and humidity are controlled within limits by circulated air. It may be stated that instead of trays for incubation, Takamine, as well as other producers, at one time used slowly rotating drums. Generally tray incubation gives more rapid growth and enzyme production. Bacterial enzymes have been and are also produced by the bran process. .Incubation takes place in chambers where the temperature and humidity are controlled within limits by circulated air However, until recently the process originally invented by Boidin and Effront was most extensively employed In this process, the bacteria are cultivated in special culture vessels as a pel licle on the surface of thin layers of liquid medium, the composition of which is adjusted for maximum production of the desired enzyme. Different strains of Bacillus subtilis and different media are employed, depending on whether bacterial amylase or protease is desired. PRODUCTION PROCESS OF INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES USING MICROBES Solid State Fermentation Solid-state fermentation (SSF) is a method used for the production of enzymes. Solid-state fermentation involves the cultivation of microorganisms on a solid substrate, such as grains, rice and wheat bran. This method is an alternative to the production of enzymes in liquid by submerged fermentation. SSF has many advantages over submerged fermentation. These include, high volumetric productivity, relatively high concentration of product, less effluent generated and simple fermentation equipment.. SSF requires moisture to be present on the substrate, for the microorganisms to produce enzymes. As a consequence the water content of the substrate must also be optimized, as a higher or lower presence of water may adversely affect the microbial activity. Water also has implications for the physicochemical properties of the solid substrate. Enzymes of industrial importance have been produced by SSF. Some examples are, proteases, pectinases, glucoamylases andcellulases Microorganisms used for the production of enzymes in S.S.F. A large number of microorganisms, including bacteria, yeast and fungi produce different groups of enzymes.Selection of a particular strain, however, remains a tedious task, especially when commercially competent enzyme yields are to be achieved. The selection of a suitable strain for the required purpose depends upon a number of factors, in particular upon the nature of the substrate and environmental conditions. Generally, hydrolytic enzymes, e.g. cellulases, xylanases, pectinases, etc. are produced by fungal cultures, since such enzymes are used in nature by fungi for their growth. Trichoderma spp. and Aspergillus spp. have most widely been used for these enzymes. Amylolytic enzymes too are commonly produced by filamentous fungi and the preferred strains belong to the species of Aspergillus and Rhizopus. Although commercial production of amylases is carried out using both fungal and bacterial cultures, bacterial a -amylase is generally preferred for starch liquefaction due to its h igh temperature stability. In order to achieve high productivity with less production cost, apparently, genetically modified strains would hold the key to enzyme production. Substrates used for the production of enzymes in SSF systems Agro-industrial residues are generally considered the best substrates for the SSF processes, and use of SSF for the production of enzymes is no exception to that. A number of such substrates have been employed for the cultivation of microorganisms to produce host of enzymes .Some of the substrates that have been used included sugar cane bagasse, wheat bran, rice bran, maize bran, gram bran, wheat straw, rice straw, rice husk, soyhull, sago hampas, grapevine trimmings dust, saw dust, corncobs, coconut coir pith, banana waste, tea waste, cassava waste, palm oil mill waste, aspen pulp, sugar beet pulp, sweet sorghum pulp, apple pomace, peanut meal, rapeseed cake, coconut oil cake, mustard oil cake, cassava flour, wheat flour, corn flour, steamed rice, steam pre-treated willow, starch, etc.Wheat bran however holds the key, and has most commonly been used, in various processes. The selection of a substrate for enzyme production in a SSF process depends upon several factors, mainly related with cost and availability of the substrate, and thus may involve screening of several agro-industrial residues. In a SSF process, the solid substrate not only supplies the nutrients to the microbial culture growing in it but also serves as an anchorage for the cells. The substrate that provides all the needed nutrients to the microorganisms growing in it should be considered as the ideal substrate. However, some of the nutrients may be available in sub-optimal concentrations, or even absent in the substrates. In such cases, it would become necessary to supplement them externally with these. It has also been a practice to pre-treat (chemically or mechanically) some of the substrates before using in SSF processes (e.g. ligno-cellulose), thereby making them more easily accessible for microbial growth. Design of bioreactor in Solid State Fermentations Over the last decade, there has been a significant improvement in understanding of how to design, operate and scale up SSF bioreactors. The key to these advances has been the application of mathematical modelling techniques to describe various physicochemical and biochemical phenomena within the system . The basic principle of SSF is the à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"solid substrate bedà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ . This bed contains the moist solids and an inter particle voids phase. SSF has been conventionally more applicable for filamentous fungi, which grow on the surface of the particle and penetrate through the inter particle spaces into the depth of the bed. The process in most of the cases is aerobic in nature. The suitable bioreactor design to overcome the heat and mass transfer effects, and easy diffusion and extraction of metabolites has become the topic of hot pursuit. While tray and drum type fermenters have been studied and used since long, much focus has been paid in last f ew years on developing packed bed fermenters as they could provide better process economics and a great deal of handling ease . A tray bioreactor could have unmixed beds without forced aeration of (manually) mixed bed without forced aeration. However, there has been no significant advances in tray design. Packed beds could be unmixed beds with forced aeration and rotating drums could have intermittent agitation without forced aeration, operating on continuous or semi-continuous mode. The bed could be agitated intermittently or continuously with forced aeration. Factors affecting enzyme production in SSF The major factors that affect microbial synthesis of enzymes in a SSF system include: selection of a suitable substrate and microorganism; pre-treatment of the substrate; particle size (inter-particle space and surface area) of the substrate; water content and aw of the substrate; relative humidity; type and size of the inoculum; control of temperature of fermenting matter/removal of metabolic heat; period of cultivation; maintenance of uniformity in the environment of SSF system, and the gaseous atmos-phere, i.e. oxygen consumption rate and carbon dioxide evolution rate. Submerged Fermentation Submerged fermentation is the cultivation of microorganisms in liquid nutrient broth. Industrial enzymes can be produced using this process. This involves growing carefully selected micro organisms (bacteria and fungi) in closed vessels containing a rich broth of nutrients (the fermentation medium) and a high concentration of oxygen. As the microorganisms break down the nutrients, they release the desired enzymes into solution. Due to the development of large-scale fermentation technologies, the production of microbial enzymes accounts for a significant proportion of the biotechnology industry total output. Fermentation takes place in large vessels (fermenter) with volumes of up to 1,000 cubic metres. The fermentation media sterilises nutrients based on renewable raw materials like maize, sugars and soya. Most industrial enzymes are secreted by microorganisms into the fermentation medium in order to break down the carbon and nitrogen sources. Batch-fed and continuous fermentation processes are common. In the batch-fed process, sterilised nutrients are added to the fermenter during the growth of the biomass. In the continuous process, sterilised liquid nutrients are fed into the fermenter at the same flow rate as the fermentation broth leaving the system. This will achieve a steady-state production. Parameters like temperature, pH, oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide formation are measured and controlled to optimize the fermentation process. Firstly, in harvesting enzymes from the fermentation medium one must remove insoluble products, e.g. microbial cells. This is normally done by centrifugation. As most industrial enzymes are extracellular (secreted by cells into the external environment), they remain in the fermented broth after the biomass has been removed. The biomass can be recycled as a fertiliser, but first it must be treated with lime to inactivate the microorganisms and stabilise it during storage. The enzymes in the remaining broth are then concentrated by evaporation, membrane filtration or crystallization depending on their intended application. If pure enzyme preparations are required, they are usually isolated by gel or ion exchange chromatography. Certain applications require solid enzyme products, so the crude powder enzymes are made into granules to make them more convenient to use. Sometimes liquid formulations are preferred because they are easier to handle and dose along with other liquid ingredients. Enzymes used in starch conversion to convert glucose into fructose are immobilised, typically on the surfaces of inert granules held in reaction columns or towers. This is carried out to prolong their working life as these enzymes normally go on working for over a year. Advantages of Submerged Technique Measure of process parameters is easier than with solid-state fermentation. Bacterial and yeast cells are evenly distributed throughout the medium. There is a high water content which is ideal for bacteria. Disadvantages: High costs due to the expensive media Large reactors are needed and the behaviour of the organism cannot be predicted There is also a risk of contamination. A TYPICAL LARGE SCALE MICROBIAL ENZYME PRODUCTION PROCESS Recovery of the enzyme It generally depends upon precipitation from an aqueous solution, although some enzymes may be marketed as stabilized solutions. In the bran process, the enzyme is extracted from the koj i (the name given to the mass of material permeated with the mold mycelium) into an aqueous solution by percolation. In the liquid processes, the microbial cells are filtered from the beer. The enzyme may be precipitated by addition of solvents, such as acetone or aliphatic alcohols, to the aqueous enzyme solution, either directly or after concentration by vacuum evaporation at low temperature. The precipitated enzyme may be filtered and dried at low temperature, for example in a vacuum shelf dryer. The dry enzyme powders may be sold as undiluted concentrates on a potency basis or, for most applications, may be diluted to an established standard potency with an acceptable diluent. Some common diluents are salt, sugar, starch, and wheat flour. Most commercial enzymes are quite stable in the dry form, but some require the presence of stabilizers and activators for maximum stability and efficiency in use. In theory, the fermentative production of microbial enzymes is a simple matter, requiring an appropriate organism grown on a medium of optimum composition under optimum conditions. The stocks in trade of microbial enzyme manufacturers are thus the selected cultures, the composition of media, and the cultural conditions, all of which are usually held confidential. In practice, enzyme manufacturers suffer the samedifficulties in fermentation, frequently in even greater degree, as antibiotics producers. Total loss of fermentation batches may result from contamination, culture variation, failure of cultural control, and other like causes. Furthermore, knowledge and careful application of the best methods for recovery and stabilization APPLICATIONS OF MICROBIAL ENZYMES IN INDUSTRIES Detergents were the first large scale application for microbial enzymes. Bacterial proteinases are still the most important detergent enzymes. Some products have been genetically engineered to be more stable in the hostile environment of washing machines with several different chemicals present. These hostile agents include anionic detergents, oxidising agents and high pH. Amylases are used in detergents to remove starch based stains. Amylases hydrolyse gelatinised starch, which tends to stick on textile fibres and bind other stain components. Cellulases have been part of detergents since early 90s. Cellulase is actually an enzyme complex capable of degrading crystalline cellulose to glucose. In textile washing cellulases remove cellulose microfibrils, which are formed during washing and the use of cotton based cloths. This can be seen as colour brightening and softening of the material. Alkaline cellulases are produced by Bacillus strains and neutral and acidic cellulases by Trichoderma and Humicola fungi. Starch hydrolysis and fructose production The use of starch degrading enzymes was the first large-scale application of microbial enzymes in food industry. Mainly two enzymes carry out conversion of starch to glucose: alpha-amylase cuts rapidly the large alpha-1,4-linked glucose polymers into shorter oligomers in high temperature. This phase is called liquefaction and is carried out by bacterial enzymes. In the next phase called saccharification, glucoamylase hydrolyses the oligomers into glucose. This is done by fungal enzymes, which operate in lower pH and temperature than alpha-amylase. Sometimes additional debranching enzymes like pullulanase are added to improve the glucose yield. Beta-amylase is commercially produced from barley grains and used for the production of the disaccharide maltose. An alternative method to produce fructose is shown in Figure 4. This method is used in Europe and uses sucrose as a starting material. Sucrose is split by invertase into glucose and fructose, fructose separated and crystallized and then the glucose circulated back to the process. Drinks And Brewing Industries Enzymes have many applications in drink industry. The use of chymosin in cheese making to coagulate milk protein was already discussed. Another enzyme used in milk industry is beta-galactosidase or lactase, which splits milk-sugar lactose into glucose and galactose. This process is used for milk products that are consumed by lactose intolerant consumers. Enzymes are used also in fruit juice manufacturing. Fruit cell wall needs to be broken down to improve juice liberation. Pectins are polymeric substances in fruit lamella and cell walls. They are closely related to polysaccharides. The cell wall contains also hemicelluloses and cellulose. Addition of pectinase, xylanase and cellulase improve the liberation of the juice from the pulp. Pectinases and amylases are used in juice clarification. Brewing is an enzymatic process. Malting is a process, which increases the enzyme levels in the grain. In the mashing process the enzymes are liberated and they hydrolyse the starch into soluble fermentable sugars like maltose, which is a glucose disaccharide. Additional enzymes can be used to help the starch hydrolysis (typically alpha-amylases), solve filtration problems caused by beta-glucans present in malt (beta-glucanases), hydrolyse proteins (neutral proteinase), and control haze during maturation, filtration and storage (papain, alpha-amylase and beta-glucanase). Textiles Industries:- The use of enzymes in textile industry is one of the most rapidly growing fields in industrial enzymology. Starch has for a long time been used as a protective glue of fibres in weaving of fabrics. This is called sizing. Enzymes are used to remove the starch in a process called desizing. Amylases are used in this process since they do not harm the textile fibres .The same effect can be obtained with cellulase enzymes. The effect is a result of alternating cycles of desizing and bleaching enzymes and chemicals in washing machines. Laccases are produced by white-rot fungi, which use them to degrade lignin the aromatic polymer found in all plant materials. Laccase is a copper-containing enzyme, which is oxidised by oxygen, and which in an oxidised state can oxidatively degrade many different types of molecules like dye pigments. Pulp And Paper Industry Intensive studies have been carried out during the last twenty years to apply many different enzymes in pulp and paper industry. The major application is the use of xylanases in pulp bleaching. Xylanases liberate lignin fragments by hydrolysing residual xylan. This reduces considerably the need for chlorine based bleaching chemicals. Other minor enzyme applications in pulp production include the use of enzymes to remove fine particles from pulp. This facilitates water removal. In the use of secondary (recycled) cellulose fibre the removal of ink is important. The fibre is diluted to 1% concentration with water, flocculating surfactants and ink solvents added and the mixture is aerated. The ink particles float to the surface. There are reports that this process is facilitated by addition of cellulase enzymes. In paper making enzymes are used especially in modification of starch, which is used as an important additive. Starch improves the strength, stiffness and erasability of paper. The starch suspension must have a certain viscosity, which is achieved by adding amylase enzymes in a controlled process. Pitch is a sticky substance present mainly in softwoods. It is composed of lipids. It is a special problem when mechanical pulps of red pine are used as a raw material. Pitch causes problems in paper machines and can be removed by lipases. This facilitates water removal. In the use of secondary (recycled) cellulose fibre the removal of ink is important in the process Baking Industry :- Similar fibre materials are used in baking than in animal feed. It is therefore conceivable that enzymes also affect the baking process. Alpha-amylases have been most widely studied in connection with improved bread quality and increased shelf life. Both fungal and bacterial amylases are used. Overdosage may lead to sticky dough so the added amount needs to be carefully controlled. One of the motivations to study the effect of enzymes on dough and bread qualities comes from the pressure to reduce other additives. In addition to starch, flour typically contains minor amounts of cellulose, glucans and hemicelluloses like arabinoxylan and arabinogalactan. There is evidence that the use of xylanases decreases the water absorption and thus reduces the amount of added water needed in baking. This leads to more stable dough. Especially xylanases are used in whole meal rye baking and dry crisps common in Scandinavia. Proteinases can be added to improve dough-handling properties; glucose oxidase has been used to replace chemical oxidants and lipases to strengthen gluten, which leads to more stable dough and better bread quality. Various Important Microbial Enzymes Carbohydrases Carbohydrases are enzymes which hydrolyze polysaccharides or oligosaccharides. Several carbohydrases have industrial importance, but the amylases have the greatest commercial application. The various starch-splitting enzymes are known as amylases, the actions of which may be expressed in greatly simplifiedform as follows: The terms liquefying and saccharifying amylases are general classifications denoting the principal types of amylase action. f-Amylase, which is not of microbial origin, is a true saccharifying enzyme, forming maltose directly from starch by cleaving disaccharide units from the open ends of chains. The a-amylases from different sources usually have good liquefying ability, but may vary widely in saccharifying ability and thermal stability. Bacterial amylase preparations generally remain operative at considerably higher temperature than do fungal amylases, and at elevated temperatures give rapid liquefaction of starch. A significant application of the bacterial enzyme is in the continuous process for desizing of textile fabrics Another is in preparing modified starch sizing for textiles and starch coatings for paper High temperature stability is also important in the brewing industry where microbial amylases have found use in supplementing low diastatic malt, and especially for initial liquefaction of adjuncts such as rice and corn grits Additional specific uses for bacterial amylase is in preparing cold water dispersible laundry starches and in removing wall paper. Fungal amylases possess relatively low thermal stability but act rapidly at lower temperatures and produce good saccharification. An enormous potential use for fungal amylase is as a saccharifying agent for grain alcohol fermentation mashes. At least two alcohol plants in this country regularly use fungal amylase for this purpose An extremely important use for fungal amylases isin conversion of partially acid hydrolyzed starch tosweet syrups Amylases find extensive use in baking. Use of fungal amylase by the baker to supplement the diastatic activity of flour is common practice. The fungal amylase has the advantage of low inactivation temperature. This permits use of high levels of the amylase to improve sugar production, which increases gas formation and improves crust color, without danger of excessive dextrinization of the starch during baking Other applications of microbial amylases where both fungal and bacterial enzymes are utilized are in processing cereal products for food dextrin and sugar mixtures and for breakfast foods, for preparation of chocolate and licorice syrups to keep them from congealing, and for recovering sugars from scrap candy of high starch content. Fungal amylases are also used for starch removal for flavoring extracts and for fruit extracts and juices, and in preparing clear, starch-free pectin. Microbial amylases are used for modifying starch in vegetable purees, and in treating vegetables for canning PROTEASES Industrially available proteolytic enzymes produced by microorganisms are usually mixtures of endopeptidases (proteinases) and exopeptidases. In addition to microbial proteases, the plant proteases bromelin, papain, and ficin, and the animal proteases, pepsin and trypsin, have extensive industrial application. Because of the complex structures and high molecular weights of proteins made up of some 20 different amino acids, enzymic proteolysis is extremely complicated. Most proteases are quite specific with regard to which peptide linkages they can split Hence, it is necessary to select the appropriate protease complex or combination of enzymes for specific applications. Usually this can only be determined by trial and error methods. By means of such experimentation, however, many and diverse uses have been found for the various proteases. With proper selection of enzymes, with appropriate conditions of time, temperature, and pH, either limited proteolysis or complete hydrolysis of most proteins to amino acids can be brought about. Microbial proteolytic enzymes from different fungi and bacteria are available. Most fungal proteases will tolerate and act effectively over a wide pH range (about 4 to 8), while with a few exceptions, bacterialproteases generally work best over a narrow range of about pH 7 to 8. Fungal protease has been used for centuries in the orient for the production of soy sauce, tamari sauce, and miso, a breakfast food After maximum enzyme production has taken place, the koji is covered with brine and enzymatic digestion allowed to take place. Limited use is made of this process for making soy sauce in this country also. In these uses, no attempt is made to separate the enzymes from the producing organisms. For most industrial applications, the microbial proteases are extracted from the growth medium as described in an earlier section of this paper. One of the largest uses for fungal protease is in baking bread The proper amount of protease action reduces mixing time and increases extensibility of doughs, and improves grain, texture, and loaf volume. However, excess of protease must be avoided, and the time for enzyme action and quantity of enzyme used must be carefully controlled by the baker or sticky, unmanageable doughs will result. Cereal foods are also treated with proteolytic enzymes to modify their proteins, resulting in better processing

Flaws of The British Criminal Justice System Essay examples -- Criminal

The Criminal Justice System, a system the British government set up to deal with the treatment of law-breakers, has three main goals to achieve social order, these are, (1) enforcing criminal law, (2) maintaining law and order in the society, and (3) helping victims. This may seem to be a well thought of system, but like any other organisation, there are flaws, and one of the major flaws is discrimination, and the bias that stems from discrimination. Discrimination on the basis of class, gender, sexuality and ethnicity operates at the level of attitude, on the street, in the home, at the workplace or at social venues. In regards to the Criminal Justice System, race and gender are always accounted for in court proceedings. As Smith in 1997 said, â€Å"the apparent ‘fairness’ of the criminal justice system does not mean that the outcomes will necessarily be unbiased†. Tonry in 1997 found that even though certain ethnic groups are far more often caught in the net of criminal justice than others, they have elevated rates of official offending which differ from one country to another. The major ethnic group in Britain and Wales being black people whose families originated from the Caribbean in the 1940’s. (cited in the Oxford Handbook). Black people find themselves subject to rules made for them by white people, it is also the same for other groups living in the same culture, e.g. it seems to be men th at make the rules for the women in society, even though this seems to be changing in the United States. Foreign-born people often have their rules made for them by the Protestant Anglo-Saxon minority. The middle-class seem to make all the rules which must be obeyed by the vast majority - in the schools, the courts, etc. Th... ... discrimination from the judges and magistrates who remembered the time of segregation and other similar matters, this would build up and provide a racial outlook therefore showing discrimination. Being a part of an ethnic group is seen as being a member and an important source of personal identity, it is seen to be an attack on the group as a whole when one member has been targeted. This is why there are many practical problems when trying to improve decision making procedures. The criminal justice system should take into account there are not enough minority groups in the workforce, especially the police, or the courts, so therefore try to improve the standards when dealing with offenders. Even though racism and discrimination is part and parcel of living in a society, a person’s identity as a human should be more important than the colour of the skin.